Smarthinking Writer's Handbook

Chapter 3, Lesson 15: Section 2

Documentation: APA Style

Introduction

The publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (APA) is the most frequently used style guide for scholars writing papers in the social sciences or business. Although undergraduates use the guide to format their papers, it is designed primarily for formatting papers published in scholarly journals. For that reason, your course instructor, not the APA guide, is the best resource for formatting a table of contents, or Power Point slides, for example, because these are topics that the APA guide does not cover. For help with MLA see Documentation: MLA Style.

The APA Web site offers a tutorial, "The Basics of APA Style," for anyone who needs an introduction or overview of how to structure and format your work, avoid plagiarism, and cite references in APA style: http://www.apastyle.org/learn/tutorials/basics-tutorial.aspx

Formatting your paper using APA guidelines

There are a few conventions that you should observe when you're formatting your paper following the APA guidelines. (PLEASE NOTE: IF YOUR SCHOOL HAS SPECIFIC GUIDELINES ABOUT FORMAT, THOSE GUIDELINES TAKE PRECEDENCE OVER ANYTHING WRITTEN HERE OR IN THE APA GUIDE.)

Title page- Keep the text on the title page double spaced. Include the following elements:

• a Running head at the top left corner of the title page
  • Use your word processor's header formatting function
  • Type in this format for the first page only: Running head: SHORTENED FORM OF PAPER'S TITLE IN CAPITAL LETTERS
  • Here is an example for a paper entitled "Too Much Too Fast: Effects of Violent Video Games on Pre-School Aged Children" :
  Running head: EFFECTS OF VIOLENT VIDEO GAMES
• the page number in the top right corner of the title page
  • Usually, only the number is needed. For example, page 1 will show up as 1 and not as pg. 1 or p. 1.
  • Check with your school for page number requirements. Some schools require preliminary pages to be numbered using lowercase Roman numerals.
• the title of the paper (centered in the middle of the page)
• your name (first, middle initial, and last) on a separate line under the title
• the name of the institution or college on a separate line under the your name
• See the example of a title page below:

NOTE: After the title page, subsequent pages should include only the actual running head in all caps (not the words "Running head" or the colon) in the upper left corner and the page numbers in the upper right. The top of the second page would look like this:

Preliminary Pages - These pages appear in a paper only when needed. For example, usually only journal articles or books require an acknowledgement page. If you need any of these pages, each one should occupy its own page, separate from the other page(s). If you need to include any of these pages, put them in the report in the following order:

• approval page - for a thesis or dissertation
• acknowledgement page
• a table of contents - if the report is divided into sections with section headings
• a list of tables and figures - if tables and figures appear in the paper or report
• an abstract
  • Follow requirements specific to your school or Dissertation Abstracts International (DAI)
  • Write between 150-250 words
  • Be "accurate, nonevaluative, coherent, and concise" (APA Manual, 2010, p. 26)

NOTE: An abstract is not the same as an introduction. The purpose of an abstract is to describe the whole paper briefly, focusing on its basic points and characteristics. The purpose of an introduction is to state the problem that the paper addresses and why it is significant, summarize relevant background and related research, and explain what new contribution the paper will offer.

Running head

• Each page should have a Running head.
• The Running head is a shortened version of the paper's title (in all caps, flush left), and includes the page number (flush right).
• Here is an example
  • Title page only: Running Head: EFFECTS OF VIOLENT VIDEO GAMES
  • All remaining pages: EFFECTS OF VIOLENT VIDEO GAMES

NOTE: The header on the title page is the only header that includes the label "Running head." Subsequent pages contain only the shortened version of the paper's title (still in capital letters) without the words "Running head".

First page - (This is actually the first page where the text of the paper begins.)

• Title, centered, at the top of the page, in upper and lowercase letters
• Hit enter once to double space
• Begin the first paragraph of the paper

Spacing and indentations

• Double space throughout the paper
• Indent the first line of each new paragraph
• Do not include an extra line of space between paragraphs
• Use two spaces between each sentence by hitting the space bar twice after a period or other end punctuation mark

Margins and fonts

• Use standard 1 or 1.25 inch margins
• 12-point Times New Roman font

NOTE: If you are writing a thesis or dissertation that will be bound, be sure to check your school's requirements for the left margin.

NOTE: APA prefers fonts with serifs such as Times New Roman because they are easier to read. However, checking with your instructor to determine his or her preference for font type should be a priority.

Figures and tables

• Tables and figures are placed within the text of the paper in student papers
• Short tables or figures are inserted into the text
• Longer tables or figures are included at the end of the paper, following the reference list and after any appendices
• Both tables and figures:
  • Use Arabic numerals
  • Are numbered consecutively as they are mentioned in the text
  • Begin with "Table 1" and "Figure 1"
• Put the table number and title at the top of the table, flush left
  • The table number comes first
  • The table title is below the number (double-spaced) and is in italics, with significant words in the title capitalized (see the NOTE below)
  • Here is an example:
    • Table X
    Number of Hours Spent Playing Video Games

NOTE: Remember to follow the conventions for capitalizing words in a title:
∼ Capitalize all words that are four or more letters
∼ Capitalize the first and last word of both the title and, if present, the subtitle
∼ Capitalize all other words except conjunctions (and, of, for, yet, but, etc) and short prepositions (of, to, by, in, on, etc)

• Place the figure number and caption at the top and the bottom of the figure.
  • At the top of the figure, the figure number and title are flush left in a single unitalicized line with significant words in the title capitalized, following conventions for capitalizing words in a title
  • Here is an example:
    Figure 1.2 Sample of Students Who Play Video Games Regularly
  • At the bottom of the figure, the figure number and figure caption should be below the figure and flush left with the word "Figure" and the figure number italicized and followed by a period
  • Here is an example:
    Figure 1. This is the caption for the sample of students who play video game

NOTE: Always remember to double check figures and tables to be sure that the label on the figure corresponds to the correct figure reference in the text.

Appendices

• Place additional material, such as your survey instrument or other documentation, in appendices following the main part of your document.
• Check with your school for specific guidelines.

Using headings to help you with organization

• There are five levels of headings:

NOTE: For most papers, three levels, or perhaps four, will be enough. If you're using headings correctly, you can make an outline of your paper from those headings.

Here is an example of the different levels of headings in the paper on the effects of violent video games. Notice how they make an outline for the body of the essay.

Method of Research

Selection of Participants

Children in full-day preschool.

Urban children.
Children who play video games fewer than four hours per day.
Children who play video games more than four hours per day.

Rural children.
Children who play video games fewer than four hours per day.
Children who play video games more than four hours per day.

Children in half-day preschool

Urban children.
Children who play video games fewer than four hours per day.
Children who play video games more than four hours per day.

Rural children.
Children who play video games fewer than four hours per day.
Children who play video games more than four hours per day.

Preschool-age children who do not attend preschool

Urban children.
Children who play video games fewer than four hours per day.
Children who play video games more than four hours per day.

Rural children.
Children who play video games fewer than four hours per day.
Children who play video games more than four hours per day.

Citing your sources

• Cite the sources of all quotations, summaries, or paraphrases.
• Each source is cited in two ways:
  • Parenthetical, in-text citations
  • Complete bibliographic citations in the paper's "References" section

There are two types of parenthetical, in-text citations:

• The author's name in a signal phrase [according to Smith (2003)..., as Jones (2004) notes..., Thomas (2001) points out...] and the year of publication in parentheses immediately after the author's name.
  
  Ravitch (2010) writes, "Tests are necessary and helpful. But tests must be supplemented by human judgment. When we define what matters in education only by what we can measure, we are in serious trouble" (p. 166).
  
  Gerstl-Pepin (2006) found that social and emotional interventions were more effective in improving academic outcomes than changes in curriculum and teaching.
• The author's name in a parenthetical, in-text citation immediately following the quote, summary or paraphrase.
  
  Research proves that social and emotional interventions were more effective in improving academic outcomes than changes in curriculum and teaching (Gerstl-Pepin, 2006).
  
  Research states, "Tests are necessary and helpful. But tests must be supplemented by human judgment. When we define what matters in education only by what we can measure, we are in serious trouble" (Ravitch, 2010, p. 166).

NOTE: Rigorous citation helps a writer avoid plagiarism. Plagiarism is intentionally or more often unintentionally claiming the words or ideas of someone else as the writer's own. The use of a signal phrase makes it more apparent that the writer is describing ideas from another source.

NOTE: Remember that every in-text citation should match a complete citation in the References list. The reader should be able to take the information in the in-text citation and match it with an entry in the References list in order to find that source online or in print.

NOTE: When the writer includes a summary statement to describe a general body of research that includes several researchers or writers, it is necessary to save the citation for the end of the sentence. An example looks like this:

Research indicates that the two most frequently mentioned deterrents to participation in adult education are lack of money and lack of time (Cross, 1981; Merriam and Caffarella, 1999; Scanlan and Darkenwald, 1984).

Using quotations

A quotation is a sentence or sentences that appear in your essay exactly as they appear in the source being quoted.

• A short quote (fewer than 40 words), encloses the words being quoted in quotation marks.
• Here are a few examples of different types of short quotes (fewer than 40 words):
  • Short quote from a book:
    Discussing audience traits and tendencies, Gurak and Lannon (2001) have pointed out that members of an audience "constantly for opinions of the material, learn new information, and consider new points of view" (25-26).
  • Short quote from a website:
    Smarthinking (2011) has announced in a recent press release that they now provide live, online tutoring with expert educators in the areas of vocabulary, reading comprehension and pronunciation" (para. 1).
  • Short quote with no date:
    Discussing Smarthinking's services, "How it Works" (n.d.) explains that "Students connect to live educators from any computer that has Internet access, with no special software installation or equipment required" (para. 1).
• A long quote (more than 40 words), does NOT use quotation marks. Indent the quoted words five spaces from the left margin to indicate that those are the words being quoted, but do not change the line spacing of the paper. Stick to double spacing even in the quotation.
• Here is an example of a long quote (more than 40 words):
  • The press release, "Smarthinking Launches New Interactive Website" (2011), goes on to describe the experience and effectiveness of the new site:
    • The new site provides users with a rich, immersive experience that demonstrates the techniques Smarthinking has honed in order to achieve its track record of over 3 million successful online student tutoring sessions coupled with an extensive body of research. Based on clear results, Smarthinking improves student success and retention. (para. 1)

NOTE: If the quoted material contains a quotation (words within quotation marks), called a quotation within a quotation, those words should remain in quotation marks.

In a short quotation, indicate a quotation within a quotation by enclosing the quoted words in single quotation marks inside the double quotation marks that enclose all of the words taken from the source.

Here is an example:

• The press release links the success of Smarthinking and the significance of launching a new website: "Based on clear results, Smarthinking improves student success and retention. 'This rebranding of Smarthinking has been a major endeavor for us, and we believe the end result reflects the image, dedication, and commitment of our staff, tutors, students and others who use and support our services,' said Dr. Chuck Kleiner, chief sales and marketing officer of Smarthinking" (2011, para. 2).

In a long quotation, indicate a quotation within a quotation by enclosing the quoted words in double quotation marks.

Here is an example:

• Smarthinking has debuted a newly designed Website to enhance its role in online education for the twenty-first century:
  • "This rebranding of Smarthinking has been a major endeavor for us, and we believe the end result reflects the image, dedication, and commitment of our staff, tutors, students and others who use and support our services," said Dr. Chuck Kleiner, chief sales and marketing officer of Smarthinking. (Smarthinking, 2011, para. 2).

Here are some points to remember about using quotations:

• Make sure that you introduce any quotation you use with a signal phrase (examples of which can be found both above and below).
• In the above example of a short quote, a signal phrase that includes the source of the quote, which is a 2011 press release, and additional information in parenthesis (date and paragraph number) tell where the quotation originated; additional words tell the point the quotation supports (the link between Smarthinking's success and its new website).
• Make sure that you follow the quotation with more location information in parenthesis.
• In a short quotation:
  • The page number comes at the end of the quotation, in parentheses, preceded by the abbreviation p. to indicate that it's a page number.
  • Use the abbreviation "pp." to indicate that the quotation falls on more than one page.
  • The parenthetical citation is actually seen as a part of the sentence, so the period follows the closing parenthesis.
  • The end quotation mark PRECEDES the opening parenthesis of the citation because the parenthetical citation is not part of the quoted material.
• In a long quotation:
  • The page number comes at the end of the quotation, in parentheses, preceded by the abbreviation p. to indicate that it's a page number.
  • The citation is not considered a part of the sentence, so the period comes before the opening parenthesis of the citation.
  • The abbreviation "pp." indicates that the quotation falls on more than one page.
• For both short and long quotations:
  • An electronic source may not have page numbers.
  • Use paragraph numbers or section headings [such as (Access) in the above citation] if those are more appropriate.
  • With paragraph numbers, the abbreviation "para." should precede the number.
  • Always use only the last name of the author.
  • A work with two authors uses the names of both authors.
    • If the two authors have the same last name, distinguish between them by using a first initial as well, but APA does not use the first name of the authors in the citations.
  • A work with no author uses a shortened title in place of the author. In the example above, the author is the name of the corporation that sponsors the Website.
  • A work with three to seven authors lists all authors for the first reference. After that, use the first author's name, followed by the words "et al." (meaning, "and others").
  • A work with eight or more authors uses the name of the first author followed by the words "et al." in the first as well as subsequent citations. Note that the words "et al." are not in italics or quotation marks in the actual citation. There is a period following "al.," as in this parenthetical citation: (Jones et al., 2002).
  • A work that cites the work of one author in a source by another author, called a secondary source, uses an in-text citation that states "as cited in" followed by the secondary author and page number: (as cited in Batson, 2005, p. 156).

NOTE: Make it as easy as possible for your reader to locate the information that you've cited in the text.

NOTE: Quotations support and develop ideas that you have already described in other sentences of a paragraph.

An example might make all of this clearer, so let's take a look at what a typical paragraph from a paper using APA documentation might look like.

How are citations and references related?

References provide the bibliographic information for the reader. They are the sources of information you referred to in the parenthetical citations in the essay.

• Even if the text on the final page of the essay ends before the end of the page, start on a new page for your References list.
• Type "References" (without quotation marks) centered at the top of that page.
• Each reference appears on its own line.
• References are arranged in alphabetical order using the last name of the author or, if there is no author, the title of the work.
• Each entry is double-spaced and uses a hanging indentation (where the first line is flush with the left margin and subsequent lines are indented from that margin).

NOTE: All of the entries included in this section are sources that you've actually "used in the research and preparation of the article" (APA Manual, 2010, p. 180).

Below you will find examples of the more commonly used types of citations. If you don't find the type of source you've used here, consult the APA style guide (Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association) or check the APA web site.

Citation and Reference Examples

The APA Style Manual (2010) identifies four fields necessary for a complete citation: "Each entry usually contains the following elements: author, year of publication, title, and publishing data-all the information necessary for unique identification and library search" (p. 180).

They are presented in this order:
Author, (date), title [format], source

A print source would look like this:
Author, A. (date). Title of book. Publisher's city, country: Publisher's name.

An online source for information from a Webpage would look like this:
Author, A. (date). Title of document. Webpage Title. Retrieved from http://URL

An online source from a discussion post or press release:
Author, A. (date). Title of post [Format description]. Retrieved from http://URL

An online source for an article in a journal that you found online would look like this:
Author, A. (date). Title of document. Publication Title. doi:#####

Here is some of the information necessary for each field:

Author: Name of the person who wrote the text even if the name is a screen name such as Luvschocolate. The name should appear exactly as it does on the cover of the book, the first page of the journal article, or the entry on a blog or Facebook in this format if the information is available:

Author, A.

last name, first initial of first name: Smith, J.

If the reference list includes different authors with the same last name and first initial of the first name, place the authors' full first names in brackets immediately after the first initial of the first name: Smith, J. [John] Smith, J. [James]

Tips to determine the author of a news article, press release, or Web site entry:

• The name of the person stated on a by-line placed just under the title of the article or immediately after the final sentence of the article.
• The organization itself such as Smarthinking, or American Psychological Association
• A department within a larger organization
  • State the name of the larger organization first and then the department: The White House, Office of the Press Secretary
• An educated guess about the author from the Web content on that page
  • Place the author name in square brackets to show that the author is "reasonably certain but not stated on the document" (APA Manual, 2010, p. 214); this is a new style guideline for APA
• No author available
  • In this case, in the References list, move the title of the entry to the author position (do not use quotation marks around the title); in the in-text citation, the title (put inside double quotation marks) takes the place of the author's na

Date: Year, Month, Day but not the time of day. Most citations use only the year.

Here are some exceptions:

• Papers and poster sessions presented at conferences (year, month) (2011, May)
• Newspaper articles, e-mails, blog posts (year, month day) (2011, May 26)
• Periodicals that use a season (2011, Spring)
• Source where no year can be determined (n.d.)
• If citing multiple postings made by the same author on the same day or in the same year (provided there is no day to differentiate the postings) use a, b, c, etc. after the year to make the distinction (2011a, May 26)
• If citing a reprinted or republished edition the reference uses the date of the version you read with the date of the original work or source of the reprint at the end

Where to look for the date in online sources:

• Look at the beginning or the end of the document
• Do not use the date given in "This page was last modified on [date]" or a copyright date that might appear as a running footer because that date refers to modification or copyright of the Website as a whole, and is not exclusive to the particular document you are referencing
• If no date is available, use "n.d." to stand for "no date": (n.d.)

Title: Use the complete title of the book, journal, or Facebook or blog post as it appears. Do not abbreviate. That means if a URL appears in the title, include it. Non-print sources also include the format indicated in brackets: [Blog post] or [Video clip] or [Audio clip]

Format: Some non-print sources should indicate the format in brackets. This is useful to do when the title does not distinguish the type of source. Some examples include: [Blog post], [Video clip], [Audio clip], or [Press release]. You do not need to indicate the format in brackets for a source that can be found in print, even if it was read online.

Source: Where that information was found.

• Print journal: journal name, volume, and page span
• Online journal: journal name, volume, page span. Retrieved from URL and / or DOI
  • Remember that the volume number as well as the journal name, is italicized
• Print book chapter: editor name(s), the book's overall title, a page span, and publisher location and name
• Online book chapter: editor name(s), the book's overall title, a page span, DOI or URL

NOTE: All URLs should lead directly to the posting, not to the home page of the site.

Reference Examples Where Information Is Missing

It's not always possible to obtain all of the necessary information to make a complete reference for a source, particularly in the case of online sources. If you find that you are still missing some information despite your best efforts to obtain it, use the basic structure given above, drop the information you are missing, and shift over the remaining information making sure no entry begins with a date.

Let's look at an example. Here is the basic format for every reference entry and the example of it in the sample entry:

Basic entry: Author, (date). This is the title. [format]. source Smarthinking. (2011, June 02). Smarthinking launches new interactive website. [Press release].
Retrieved from http://smarthinking.com/about-us/news-events/news-category/press-releases/

The above entry contains all of the necessary source information. Let's look below to see what happens when locating a specific piece of source information isn't possible a specific piece of information can't be located. The top line tells which piece of information is unavailable can't be located, followed by the basic format for a reference missing that piece of information. The line following gives a sample reference illustrating that format.

No date available: Author, (n.d.). This is the title. [format]. source Smarthinking. (n.d.). Smarthinking launches new interactive website. [Press release].
Retrieved from http://smarthinking.com/about-us/news-events/news-category/press-releases/

No title available: Author, (date). [format]. source Smarthinking. (2011, June 02). [Press release].
Retrieved from http://smarthinking.com/about-us/news-events/news-category/press-releases/

No author available: This is the title. [format]. (date). source Smarthinking launches new interactive website. [Press release]. (2011, June 02).
Retrieved from http://smarthinking.com/about-us/news-events/news-category/press-releases/

No author and no date: This is the title. [format]. (n.d.). source Smarthinking launches new interactive website. [Press release]. (n.d.).
Retrieved from http://smarthinking.com/about-us/news-events/news-category/press-releases/

No author and no title available: [format]. (date). source [Press release]. (2011, June 02).
Retrieved from http://smarthinking.com/about-us/news-events/news-category/press-releases/

No date and no title: Author, (n.d.), [format], source Smarthinking. (n.d.). [Press release].
Retrieved from http://smarthinking.com/about-us/news-events/news-category/press-releases/

No author, no date, no title: [format]. (n.d.). source [Press release]. (n.d.).
Retrieved from http://smarthinking.com/about-us/news-events/news-category/press-releases/

Print sources

Books, encyclopedias, dissertations, theses

Journals and Periodicals

NOTE: Any periodical source that has been assigned a DOI should include the DOI at the end of the References entry, even if the copy you have used is a print version. For more information about the DOI system, please see our section on electronic resources below.

Electronic Sources

In 2009, the American Psychological Association revised their guidelines for documenting electronic sources. The following information is based on the information found in the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (2010). If you are not certain that you have the current information for dealing with electronic sources, you can check the APA web site: http://www.apastyle.org.

The following is a brief summary of some of the changes in how you cite electronic sources:

• Use a Digital Object Identifier (DOI) instead of a URL whenever possible.
  • "A DOI is a unique alpha-numeric string assigned by a registration agency to identify content and provide a persistent link to its location on the Internet" (APA Manual, 2010, p. 189).
  • The DOI can be found on the first page of the article.
  • Articles in private database such as ProQuest, ERIC, or EBSCO will include a DOI.
  • If no DOI exists, provide a URL to the home page of the journal, book, or report publisher.
  • Use the URL that leads directly to the specific article if that article is difficult to locate from the home page.
• Your Reference-page entry will end with the words “Retrieved from” plus the URL
• Two reasons to include the retrieval date:
  • When the material that you reference is subject to change, such as a blog post
  • When you are not able to find a specific publication date
• Retrieve a journal article as a PDF if available
  • PDF files have page numbers to cite when you use quotations
• If no page numbers are available, cite the paragraph number
  • Count down from the first paragraph when quoting sentences from an unnumbered online source

Although not every possible type of source is included, the following examples cover some of the most commonly used types of electronic sources.

Miscellaneous Sources